武臣執權期 高麗-宋 朝貢貿易衰退と民間貿易の擴大

武臣政権期（1170〜1270）高麗の海上交易は宋との対外関係史を中心に、2つの論爭の中で理解されてきた。一つは｢貿易年限｣論爭で、武臣政権期海上交易は高麗-宋朝貢関係の中断により全般的な交流が沈滯したと理解されている。もう一つは、｢貿易主体｣論争で、高麗前期中央政府が在地勢力と商人の貿易を統制したため、高麗商人が主体的に海上交易に參加することができなかったという見解が学界の通説に受け入れられている。
本論文では、既存の硏究を参考にし、高麗と南宋の文集類・地方志・墓誌銘・考古学遺蹟を総合的に検討、既存の2つの通説に問題を提起した。最初に、武臣政権期海上交易が朝貢貿易の衰退により、民間貿易がさらに拡大されたこと明らかにした。次に、武臣政権期を起点に貿易主体として高麗商人の海上貿易活動が本格的に展開されたこと論証した。さらに既存の硏究で扱われていない実物資料を通して、活発に展開された中世海上交流の様相を明らかにし、貿易商品の微視的な分析を以て隠されていた歷史主体の声を明らかにした。
｢貿易を通じた朝貢体制の衰退｣は、10〜13世紀東アジア国際関係の全般的な趨勢であった。変動する国際情勢の中で、高麗の対外貿易は公権力と民間の絶え間ない拮抗と妥協を重ねた。武臣政権期高麗の海上交易が拡大された背​​景には、基本的に12〜13世紀以来世界的規模で拡大された国際交易環境と国内流通経済の活性化があった。朝貢貿易が衰退した事情とは異なり、支配層と商人がより海外貿易に参加できるようになり、南宋・金・モンゴルと政治的緊張関係を継続している裏側で頻繁に民間貿易が展開された。武臣政権期には、武臣をはじめとする支配層が交易主導権を行使する過程で、中央政府の民間貿易の統制力が緩和された。
1160年代を起点に中国の文献資料で｢高麗商人｣の活動記録が増加する反面、国内資料では、宋商の活動記録が減少する。これらの現象は‘国籍が出発国に帰属される’貿易が盛行した結果だと理解され、宋商の韓半島訪問が急激に減少したという既存の観点に問題を提起した。さらに、中国文献に表示される｢高麗商人｣は、高麗人だけを指したものではないが、構成と活動から高麗人が中心になったことを明らかにしている。宋末期泉州には高麗人居住地である「高麗村」が立てられ、中国に亡命した高麗人の中には、「林氏家門」のように地域社会の有力家門に成長した事例もあった。中国の実物資料で確認されている高麗人の居住地と貿易空間の存在は高麗商人が活発な海上交易活動をしたということが前提にある。一方、同時期泉州に「新羅寺」が建立されている点をみると、中国に移住した韓半島人が単一のアイデンティティがない可能性を示す。ディアスポラ難民の発生と境界を行き来する商人の活動は、国家中心的、民族主義的観点だけで説明できない中世海上交流の逆動性を示すほど、この時期の商人の活動は、トランスナショナル的な観点での証明が必要である。
政治・社会・経済そして技術の発展に伴い物理的な貿易条件が変化し、武臣政権末期まで数千名の高麗人と宋人が海上を介して往来した。武臣政権期には朝貢関係の中断に応じて、宋の中央政府ではなく明州・泉州など江南沿岸の地域社会を中心に交易が展開された。高麗商人は中国港口都市の貿易船誘致競爭に基づいて特恵に近い関税率の適用を受け、中国地域社会の経済発展隔差で発生する流通構造を活用して、かなりの貿易利益を獲得することができた。航海術の発達は遠距離交易の所要時間を縮小させ、高麗・南宋の強力な水軍は商人の往来の安全を保障した。海上交易活動で形成された高麗商人の経験と人的・物的ネットワークは、元帝国時期高麗海上交易発達の土台になった。
武臣政権期高麗の海上交易が世界的規模の交換体系に連動されていたという状況は銀と薬材の輸出を介して確認することができる。中国の海外貿易は、異国的な薬材・香料を主要な商品として輸入・消費し、鉱物資源と手工業品を海外に流出するという構造であった。高麗は銀の供給地として中国と緊密に連動されていただけに、市場性が確保された薬材取引にも積極的に參加した。特に薬材は生産と販売に民間も主体的に参加した貿易商品であり、状況によっては大きな貿易利益を作り出した。
また、代表的な輸入商品として高麗の支配層と民間の二重流通構造に消費されていた。武臣政権期の��郷薬救急方��の出刊は��新集御醫撮要方��で確認される支配層が活発に使用していた輸入薬材に対する民間の要求に、官が積極的に対応した産物であった。��郷薬救急方��の出刊それ自体が、世界的規模に拡大された交易環境と民間の流通経済が活性化された現実に対応していく歴史主体の声を露出したものだといえる。つまり、商品で連結されている武臣政権期東アジア海上交易を通して、この時期の世界的規模の連結を推動した力は、民間と公権力の絶え間ない拮抗と妥協と枠組みの中からうまれた結果物であることを確認することができた。
以上の硏究を通じて高麗時代交易の全体像を再構成した。具体的には12〜13世紀世界的規模で拡張された国際交易環境と民間の流通経済が活性化した国内社会変化に附合する武臣政権期海上交易に関する新しい歷史像を提示した。武臣政権期、貿易主体に成長​​した高麗商人の活動とその過程で形成された人的・物的ネットワークの存在は、高麗後期商人層の成長、民間貿易の拡大さらに社会・経済構造全般の変動をもたらした動因として理解されるべきである。

There have been two major academic subjects of controversy surrounding the extent of international trade relation between Koryŏ and the Song dynasty during the military regime Period (c. 1170 – 1270 CE). The first is about the scope of the trade terms between two nations, and the other is about the principal agent in the actual trade activities during this period. It has been argued since the 1930s that the decline of the tributary relations between the two nations had created a stagnation of trades, and it was not until the advent of the Yuan dynasty that the Koryŏ merchants could actively engage in international trading activities. The purpose of this thesis is to upset the prevailing academic consensus. This was possible by synthetically examining several documentations and artifacts of both nations from the period, such as literary compilations(文集), local surveys(地方誌), grave epitaphs(墓誌銘), and archeological findings.
First, the thesis argues that the international relation between Koryŏ and Song China was not only consistently maintained but also expanded by the dominating activities of private merchants engaging in foreign trades. Secondly, the thesis argues that the growth of the Koryŏ merchants and the revival of the government-led trade during the Yuan domination period were largely affected by the activities of Koryŏ merchants during the earlier military regime period. This argument is supported by newly discovered period documents, which clearly demonstrates the previously unrecognized notion that there was a strong exchange network of people and commodities during this period.
The decline of Tributary Trade was a general tendency in East Asian international relations between 10th and 13th century. The Song dynasty had lost its role and status as the unified mandating dynasty, which led to the creation of a new commercial system supported by numerous maritime activities of merchants from several nations. The rapid decline of tributary trade between Koryŏ and Song in the 12th century caused a vast expansion of roles conducted by the merchants. The Koryŏ and Song merchants had engaged in several essential activities for the international relations, such as engaging in repatriations of castaways, serving as the de facto diplomatic delegations, as well as the usual trade activities, replacing the roles of declining tributary trade between the two nations. This phenomenon was particularly prominent in Koryŏ during the military regime period, with the increase of demands in foreign trades.
The background for the expansion of Koryŏ’s maritime trade during the military regime is fundamentally due to the environment in international trade that was expanded to reach all parts of the world in the 12th and 13th centuries as well as due to the vitalization of a distribution economy. Unlike the decline in the tributary trade, the ability for the ruling class and merchants to participate in foreign trade increased. As such, private foreign trade frequently occurred behind the scenes of strained relations with Southern Song, Jin, and the Mongols. During the military regime, military officials and the ruling class dominated the commerce. In the process, the control by the central government over private foreign trade was alleviated.
In China’s written history, the records of the activities of “Koryŏ merchants” increased from the 1160s. Meanwhile, the records of the activities of Song merchants decreased in Korea’s written history. This phenomenon indicates the result of the prevalence of trade in which “the nationality is marked by the departing country.” It also has raised a question to the existing perspective that the Song merchants’ visit to the Korean peninsula greatly decreased.
Furthermore, the letters of “Koryŏ merchants” in Chinese materials do not guarantee that they were all only people from Koryŏ, but the materials clearly indicate that Koryŏ people became the center in the composition and activities of the merchants. At the end of the Song dynasty, “Koryŏ chon” (Koryŏ Village, 高麗村) where Koryŏ people resided was established in Quanzhou(泉州). Furthermore, among the Koryŏ people who took asylum in China, some people became important families in the local societies, like the “Lim Family” (林氏 家門). The existence of spaces of residence and commerce by Koryŏ people that can be confirmed by actual artifacts from China premises the maritime trade activities of Koryŏ merchants.
However, the fact that “Silla sa” (House of Silla, 新羅寺) was established in Quanzhou at the same time shows the possibility that the identity of people who migrated to China from the Korean peninsula was not unified. The appearance of diasporic refugees and the activities of merchants crossing borders can not be explained only by nationalistic and ethnonationalistic perspectives as they portray the dynamism of medieval maritime trade. As such, there is a need to examine the actual forms of the merchant activities from a transnational perspective.
As the physical terms of trade changed according to political, social, economic, and technological developments, thousands of people from Koryŏ and Song were continually in contact through maritime trade until the end of the military regime. During the military regime, the commerce developed and centered on local societies in the southern coast of the river such as Mingzhou(明州) and Quanzhou rather than through the central government of Song, due to the suspension of the tribute relations. Koryŏ merchants received a preferential custom tariff rate due to the competition to attract merchant vessels, and they were able to gain great profits from the trade using the distribution structure that occurs within the gaps in the development of economies in local Chinese societies. The advancement in navigation decreased the time required for long distance trade, and the strong naval forces of Koryŏ and Southern Song secured the safety of commercial transactions. The experience through the human and material network that Koryŏ merchants gained from the maritime trade activities became the foundation of the development of Koryŏ’s maritime trade during the Yuan invasion period.
The maritime trade of Koryŏ during the military regime was connected to the worldwide exchanging system. This can be examined from the exportation of silver and medicinal ingredients. China’s foreign trade structure was a distribution system of importing and consuming foreign medicinal ingredients and spices as important commodities, while exporting abroad mineral resources and handiworks. Koryŏ was a source of silver and was thus closely connected to China. As such, they also actively participated in the medicinal ingredient trade, which had guaranteed marketability. Medicinal ingredients in particular were a trade product that private merchants autonomously participated in the production and sales process. Depending on the situation, it was able to generate much trade profit. However, the government actively responded to the demand of the private merchants regarding the vigorous use of imported medicinal ingredients by the ruling class as can be found in ��新集御醫撮要方��. The publication of “��鄕藥救急方��”(Folk Medicine Emergency Remedies) exposes the voices of the agents of history who responded to the reality in which the worldwide expansion of trade environment and the distribution economy vitalized with private participants. Specifically, from the perspective of maritime trade in East Asia that is connected through commodities during the military regime in Koryŏ, the power that drove the worldwide connection was the endless contention and compromise between the private merchants and the governmental authority.
Through the present research, the larger image of trade in the Koryŏ dynasty was reconstituted. More specifically, this research provides a new historical perspective regarding the maritime trade of the military regime that corresponded to the domestic social change during a time in which distribution economy of private merchants was vitalized and while the international trade environment was expanded to reach all part of the world in the 12th and 13th centuries. Such aspects in history must be understood in accordance to the activities of Koryŏ merchants that became the main agents in trade during the military regime. Furthermore, the existence of human and material network that was created in the process needs to be understood with the growth of the merchant class in the late Koryŏ period. The Koryŏ merchants must be seen as the agents who brought changes in the overall social and economic structures as well as the expansion of private foreign trade.

무신집권기(1170~1270) 고려의 해상 교역사는 12~13세기 세계적 규모로 확장된 국제 교역 환경과 민간 유통경제가 확대되었던 국내의 사회변화에 부합하는 역사상이 제시되지 못하였다. 이는 기존의 연구가 ��高麗史��와 ��宋史��에 근거하여 이뤄진 자료 활용의 한계에서 비롯하였다. 한편 근대 국민국가의 국적 개념에 의거하여 상인의 활동을 규정하고, 고려상인과 송상 두 주체의 관계를 제로섬(zero-sum)게임으로 파악한 인식론의 한계도 영향을 미쳤다. 이에 본 논문에서는 국내와 중국의 문헌자료 및 실물자료에 나타난 민간무역의 활동 양상을 종합적으로 정리・분석하여, 고려시대 교역의 전체상을 재구성하였다.
10~13세기 동아시아 국제관계에서 ‘무역을 통한 조공체제의 쇠퇴’는 전반적인 추세였다. 변동하는 국제정세 속에서, 고려의 대외무역은 공권력과 민간의 끊임없는 길항과 타협을 거듭하였다. 고려와 송의 조공관계 중단이 해상을 통한 교역의 단절을 의미하지는 않았다. 경제적인 측면에서 조공무역의 중단은, 교역의 전체량은 일정한 수준을 유지한 상태에서 교역의 매개체가 공권력에서 민간으로 옮겨간 것을 의미하였다. 특히, 12세기 이후에는 해외무역에 참가할 수 있는 사회 전반의 여력은 오히려 증대하였다. 이에 무신집권기 고려사회는 남송·금·몽골과 정치적 긴장관계를 계속하고 있는 뒤편에서 빈번한 민간무역이 전개되었다.
1160년대를 기점으로 국내 자료에서 송상의 활동 기록이 감소하는 현상은 송상이 ‘국적이 출발국에 귀속’되는 송 정부의 국적 판별 방식을 적극적으로 활용하면서 나타난 결과로 이해하였다. 같은 시기 중국의 문헌자료에서는 나타나는 ‘고려상인’은 문자 그대로 고려인만을 담보하지 않지만, 구성과 활동에서 고려인이 중심이 되었을 개연성이 높았다. 송 말기 천주에는 고려인 거주지인 ‘고려촌’이 세워졌고, 중국으로 망명한 고려인 중에는 ‘임씨 일가’처럼 지역사회의 유력 가문으로 성장한 경우도 있었다. 중국의 실물자료에서 확인되는 고려인의 거주지와 무역공간의 존재는 활발했던 고려상인의 해상교역 활동을 전제한다. 한편 송 말기 천주에 ‘신라사’가 건립되는 점은 중국으로 이주한 한반도인들의 정체성이 단일하지 않았을 가능성을 동시에 보여준다. 디아스포라 난민의 발생과 경계를 넘나드는 상인의 활동은 국가중심적, 민족주의적 관점만으로는 설명할 수 없는 중세 해상 교류의 역동성을 보여주는 만큼, 이 시기 상인의 활동은 트랜스내셔널적인 관점에서 실제적인 모습을 조명할 필요가 있다.
무역에 관한 제반 조건의 변화가 해상을 통한 교류를 추동하면서, 13세기 말까지도 수천 명의 고려인과 송인들이 해상을 통해 왕래하였다. 고려상인은 중국 항구도시들의 무역선 유치 경쟁에 따라 특혜에 가까운 관세율을 적용받았으며, 송대에 등장한 전국적인 시장망의 역동성을 활용하여, 상당한 무역이익을 획득할 수 있었다. 항해술의 발달은 원거리 교역 의 시간 소요를 단축시켰고, 고려·남송의 강력한 수군은 상거래의 안전을 보장하였다.
수출품의 양상과 약재 수출을 통해서는, 고려가 세계적 교환체계 속으로 통합되어가고 있던 실제적인 모습을 확인하였다. 고려는 은의 공급지로서 중국과 긴밀하게 연동되었던 만큼, 시장성을 담보한 약재거래에도 적극적으로 참가하였다. 특히 약재는 생산과 판매에 이르는 과정에 민간에서도 주체적으로 참가했던 상품이었다. 반대로 수입품의 양상과 약재 수입을 통해서는, 무신집권기 고려사회의 발전을 이끈 내부적인 추동력을 확인하였다. 특히 ��향약구급방��은 민간과 공권력의 끊임없는 타협의 과정을 보여주는 결과물로서, 시대성격을 내포한다. 인간·공간·상품을 매개하여 살펴본 12~13세기 고려의 해상 교역은, 기존의 통설처럼 단절과 쇠퇴의 이미지가 아니라 복합적이고 역동적인 역사상을 보여주고 있었다.
시대의 변화를 추동한 매개체이자 실체인 고려상인의 활동과 그 과정에서 형성된 인적·물적 네트워크는 13세기 말 유라시아 전역을 통합한 몽골제국이 출현하면서 더욱 확대되었다. 동아시아사의 전개 속에서 무신집권기 무역주체로 성장한 상인의 활동은 고려후기 사회·경제 구조 전반의 변동을 가져온 동인으로서 재평가될 필요가 있다.

武臣统治时期高丽与宋助攻贸易衰退以及民间贸易扩大

武臣统治时期(1170-1270)，高丽海上交易围绕与宋的对外关系史，存在两种争论：一种是有关“贸易年限”的争论，武臣统治时期海上交易随着高丽-宋助攻关系的中断，整个交流市场停滞不前；另一种是有关“贸易主体”的争论，高丽前期随着中央政府控制割据势力与商人的个别贸易，高丽商人无法自主参与海上交易成为学界的公论。
本文综合考察高丽与南宋文集类、地方志、墓地名、考古学遗迹，对上述争论提出两点：一个是武臣统治时期海上交易由于助攻贸易衰退民间贸易越发扩大；另一个是从武臣统治时期开始，以高丽商人为贸易主体全面开展海上贸易活动。
武臣统治时期高丽海上交易扩大，以12-13世纪以来扩大到全世界范围的国际交易环境与国内流通经济活跃为背景。12世纪60年代开始，中国文献资料中“高丽商人”活动记录逐渐增多，反之国内资料中宋商活动记录逐渐减少。这种现象是“国籍归属出发国”方式贸易盛行的表象，也对宋商的韩半岛访问急剧减少提出了质疑。还证明了中国文献中的“高丽商人”并非只是高丽人，而是其成员中逐渐以高丽人为中心。
宋代末期泉州设立了高丽人居住地“高丽村”，逃亡中国的高丽人中还有像“林氏家门”一样的地方社会名门望族。中国实物资料中的高丽人居住地与贸易空间，是以高丽商人海上交易活动为前提。同时期在泉州设立的“新罗寺”也能证明移居中国的韩半岛人群成员并不单一。流散难民与越界商人的活动，展现出了用国家中心、民族主义观点无法说明的中世纪海上交流的灵活性。此时商人活动需要从跨国性观点重新诠释。
武臣统治时期高丽海上交易与全世界规模交易体系联系的情形，可以通过银和药材出口进行确认。中国海外贸易主要进口和消费奇异的药材和香料商品，反之向海外出口矿物资源与手工艺品。高丽作为银的主生产地与中国有密切的关系，同时也积极参与市场性很强的药材交易。尤其药材是以民间为主体参与生产销售的贸易商品，产生了巨大的贸易利润。
 药材作为具有代表性的进口商品，高丽领导层与民间双重流通方式消费着。武臣统治时期『乡药急救方』的出版是，官方积极应对��新集御医提要方��中领导层药材使用需求的产物。��乡药急救方��的出版反映了应对扩大到全世界规模的交易环境与民间流通经济活跃的历史主体的声音。也就是说，通过商品联系的武臣统治时期东亚海上交易可知，这个时期联系世界规模的潜力是从民间与政府的不断对抗和妥协的产物。
通过以上研究重新构筑了高丽时代交易的整体模式。提出了12-13世纪，符合扩大到全世界的国际交易环境与民间流通经济活跃的国内社会变化的武臣统治时期，有关海上交易的新的历史视角。武臣统治时期以贸易为主成长的高丽商人活动与其间形成的人力、物力网络，是高丽后期商人的成长、民间贸易扩大以及社会经济结构整体发生变动的动因。